By
David Daversa (Institute of Zoology, University of
Cambridge, UK)
Short-listed for Access to Understanding 2013
David Daversa (Institute of Zoology, University of
Cambridge, UK)
Short-listed for Access to Understanding 2013
Most people may not think very much about reasons
explaining the shape of our feet. For evolutionary biologists and designers of
prosthetic legs however, this topic is of major interest. A recent study, led
by Dr James Usherwood from the Royal Veterinary College in England, provides
new evidence that our feet are specifically designed for walking.
explaining the shape of our feet. For evolutionary biologists and designers of
prosthetic legs however, this topic is of major interest. A recent study, led
by Dr James Usherwood from the Royal Veterinary College in England, provides
new evidence that our feet are specifically designed for walking.
To understand why however, requires a brief
overview of human walking 101. Just as people dance with certain styles, we also
walk with a certain style. This movement is no hokey-pokey, however. Rather,
scientists call our walk the inverted pendulum. Inverted pendulums are
characterized by objects that move in an arching, rainbow-like fashion overtop
of a fixed pivot. A catapult exemplifies an inverted pendulum. Likewise, while
walking our bodies act as a weighted object that propels forward over our feet,
which serves as a fixed pivot. Imagine the way a wiper blade moves across a car
windshield. Such is the motion made by
both walking people and inverted pendulums.
overview of human walking 101. Just as people dance with certain styles, we also
walk with a certain style. This movement is no hokey-pokey, however. Rather,
scientists call our walk the inverted pendulum. Inverted pendulums are
characterized by objects that move in an arching, rainbow-like fashion overtop
of a fixed pivot. A catapult exemplifies an inverted pendulum. Likewise, while
walking our bodies act as a weighted object that propels forward over our feet,
which serves as a fixed pivot. Imagine the way a wiper blade moves across a car
windshield. Such is the motion made by
both walking people and inverted pendulums.
Shutterstock Image ID:10341253 Copyright: V&V
Yet, this confusing concept may be best grasped
while actually walking. So, let’s do the inverted pendulum (imagine beat of
“the hokey pokey”):
while actually walking. So, let’s do the inverted pendulum (imagine beat of
“the hokey pokey”):
We put one foot out, and place the heel down.
We push our bodies forward with the foot on flat on the ground.
Arriving overtop we stand with bodies and legs erect.
We pivot further forward, lifting our heel
and using the toes to push off into the next step.
and using the toes to push off into the next step.
That is what the inverted pendulum is all about.
What has specifically confused scientists is why
humans are flat-footed, with heels that touch the ground while walking and
standing. As ostriches illustrate, such a foot is not essential for doing the
inverted pendulum. These large, flightless birds known for running at
impressively high speeds use the inverted pendulum style to walk as well, but
their heels are always elevated off the ground. Furthermore, women in high
heels still do the inverted pendulum as well. Thus, the ground-touching heel is
inessential. Moreover, ostrich feet may actually be preferred, as the need to
spend energy lifting the heel off the ground is eliminated.
humans are flat-footed, with heels that touch the ground while walking and
standing. As ostriches illustrate, such a foot is not essential for doing the
inverted pendulum. These large, flightless birds known for running at
impressively high speeds use the inverted pendulum style to walk as well, but
their heels are always elevated off the ground. Furthermore, women in high
heels still do the inverted pendulum as well. Thus, the ground-touching heel is
inessential. Moreover, ostrich feet may actually be preferred, as the need to
spend energy lifting the heel off the ground is eliminated.
What these past studies fail to consider however,
is the burden that walking places on the leg muscles. Therefore, James Usherwood,
from the Royal Veterinary College in the United Kingdom, and colleagues
examined muscle use throughout the inverted pendulum walk, to see whether any
insights into the function of the heel could be afforded. They did this by
first breaking down the inverted pendulum into 3 steps. In Step 1 we place our heel down on the ground. In Step 2 we stand overtop of
our feet with bodies and legs erect. Finally,
in Step 3 people push off the ground, lifting
our heel and using the toes, into the next step. Then they determined when
and how lower leg muscles were put to work during each step. What they found
was that the shin muscles were used in Step 1 to absorb the initial impact of
hitting the ground with our heel. In
Step 3 the calf muscles were triggered for the push off. Interestingly, during
Step 2 these muscles were relaxed.
Furthermore, the heel, then positioned on the ground, absorbed the
pressure placed on the foot by standing on top of it. Therefore, Usherwood and
colleagues concluded that the grounded heel functions to provide a brief
respite for our shin and calf muscles during the inverted pendulum walk. Coincidentally, this finding explains why
people can stand for long periods of time without getting sore shin and calf
muscles.
is the burden that walking places on the leg muscles. Therefore, James Usherwood,
from the Royal Veterinary College in the United Kingdom, and colleagues
examined muscle use throughout the inverted pendulum walk, to see whether any
insights into the function of the heel could be afforded. They did this by
first breaking down the inverted pendulum into 3 steps. In Step 1 we place our heel down on the ground. In Step 2 we stand overtop of
our feet with bodies and legs erect. Finally,
in Step 3 people push off the ground, lifting
our heel and using the toes, into the next step. Then they determined when
and how lower leg muscles were put to work during each step. What they found
was that the shin muscles were used in Step 1 to absorb the initial impact of
hitting the ground with our heel. In
Step 3 the calf muscles were triggered for the push off. Interestingly, during
Step 2 these muscles were relaxed.
Furthermore, the heel, then positioned on the ground, absorbed the
pressure placed on the foot by standing on top of it. Therefore, Usherwood and
colleagues concluded that the grounded heel functions to provide a brief
respite for our shin and calf muscles during the inverted pendulum walk. Coincidentally, this finding explains why
people can stand for long periods of time without getting sore shin and calf
muscles.
Shutterstock Image ID: 94554937 Copyright: Kasza
These results provide new insight for human
evolution. Recently, some scientists have argued that humans are specifically
adapted for running. These findings however, offer new evidence that human
bodies are more likely to be designed for walking.
evolution. Recently, some scientists have argued that humans are specifically
adapted for running. These findings however, offer new evidence that human
bodies are more likely to be designed for walking.
Such findings also have important implications for
the design of prosthetic legs for amputees. In light of the results, prosthetic
legs would best be designed with so that the heel touches the ground behind the
leg, correct? Actually, the opposite is the case. Prosthetic legs do not
incorporate muscle-like components as our bodies do. Thus, the value of the
ground-touching heel (to reduce the amount of work placed on the leg muscles)
is eliminated. Rather, its planted position represents a cost, since lifting
the heel off the ground requires unneeded effort.
the design of prosthetic legs for amputees. In light of the results, prosthetic
legs would best be designed with so that the heel touches the ground behind the
leg, correct? Actually, the opposite is the case. Prosthetic legs do not
incorporate muscle-like components as our bodies do. Thus, the value of the
ground-touching heel (to reduce the amount of work placed on the leg muscles)
is eliminated. Rather, its planted position represents a cost, since lifting
the heel off the ground requires unneeded effort.
For this reason, Usherwood and colleagues propose
that designs for prosthetic legs mimic ostrich feet, keeping the heel permanently
lifted off the ground. Such designs have already been put to the test and are
proving effective. The prosthetic leg used by accomplished Paralympic athlete
Oscar Pistorius, known as the blade runner, mimics a raised heel form. This
South African sprinter holds the world record time for several track and field
events. Now that is no hokey-pokey.
that designs for prosthetic legs mimic ostrich feet, keeping the heel permanently
lifted off the ground. Such designs have already been put to the test and are
proving effective. The prosthetic leg used by accomplished Paralympic athlete
Oscar Pistorius, known as the blade runner, mimics a raised heel form. This
South African sprinter holds the world record time for several track and field
events. Now that is no hokey-pokey.
This entry
PMCID: PMC3427509
J. R. Usherwood, A. J. Channon, J. P. Myatt, J. W. Rankin, and T. Y.
Hubel
Hubel
J. R. Soc. Interface (2012) 9(75), 2396–2402
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